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This is emacs-lisp-intro.info, produced by makeinfo version 4.0b from emacs-lisp-intro.texi. INFO-DIR-SECTION Emacs START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * Emacs Lisp Intro: (eintr). A simple introduction to Emacs Lisp programming. END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY This is an introduction to `Programming in Emacs Lisp', for people who are not programmers. Edition 2.04, 2001 Dec 17 Copyright (C) 1990, '91, '92, '93, '94, '95, '97, 2001 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with the Invariant Section being the Preface, with the Front-Cover Texts being no Front-Cover Texts, and with the Back-Cover Texts being no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License". File: emacs-lisp-intro.info, Node: Another Bug, Next: Final printed graph, Prev: mapcar, Up: Print Whole Graph Another Bug ... Most Insidious ------------------------------ I said `almost ready to print'! Of course, there is a bug in the `print-graph' function ... It has a `vertical-step' option, but not a `horizontal-step' option. The `top-of-range' scale goes from 10 to 300 by tens. But the `print-graph' function will print only by ones. This is a classic example of what some consider the most insidious type of bug, the bug of omission. This is not the kind of bug you can find by studying the code, for it is not in the code; it is an omitted feature. Your best actions are to try your program early and often; and try to arrange, as much as you can, to write code that is easy to understand and easy to change. Try to be aware, whenever you can, that whatever you have written, _will_ be rewritten, if not soon, eventually. A hard maxim to follow. It is the `print-X-axis-numbered-line' function that needs the work; and then the `print-X-axis' and the `print-graph' functions need to be adapted. Not much needs to be done; there is one nicety: the numbers ought to line up under the tic marks. This takes a little thought. Here is the corrected `print-X-axis-numbered-line': (defun print-X-axis-numbered-line (number-of-X-tics X-axis-leading-spaces &optional horizontal-step) "Print line of X-axis numbers" (let ((number X-axis-label-spacing) (horizontal-step (or horizontal-step 1))) (insert X-axis-leading-spaces) ;; Delete extra leading spaces. (delete-char (- (1- (length (number-to-string horizontal-step))))) (insert (concat (make-string ;; Insert white space. (- (* symbol-width X-axis-label-spacing) (1- (length (number-to-string horizontal-step))) 2) ? ) (number-to-string (* number horizontal-step)))) ;; Insert remaining numbers. (setq number (+ number X-axis-label-spacing)) (while (> number-of-X-tics 1) (insert (X-axis-element (* number horizontal-step))) (setq number (+ number X-axis-label-spacing)) (setq number-of-X-tics (1- number-of-X-tics))))) If you are reading this in Info, you can see the new versions of `print-X-axis' `print-graph' and evaluate them. If you are reading this in a printed book, you can see the changed lines here (the full text is too much to print). (defun print-X-axis (numbers-list horizontal-step) "Print X axis labels to length of NUMBERS-LIST. Optionally, HORIZONTAL-STEP, a positive integer, specifies how much an X axis label increments for each column." ;; Value of symbol-width and full-Y-label-width ;; are passed by `print-graph'. (let* ((leading-spaces (make-string full-Y-label-width ? )) ;; symbol-width is provided by graph-body-print (tic-width (* symbol-width X-axis-label-spacing)) (X-length (length numbers-list)) (X-tic (concat (make-string ;; Make a string of blanks. (- (* symbol-width X-axis-label-spacing) (length X-axis-tic-symbol)) ? ) ;; Concatenate blanks with tic symbol. X-axis-tic-symbol)) (tic-number (if (zerop (% X-length tic-width)) (/ X-length tic-width) (1+ (/ X-length tic-width))))) (print-X-axis-tic-line tic-number leading-spaces X-tic) (insert "\n") (print-X-axis-numbered-line tic-number leading-spaces horizontal-step))) (defun print-graph (numbers-list &optional vertical-step horizontal-step) "Print labelled bar graph of the NUMBERS-LIST. The numbers-list consists of the Y-axis values. Optionally, VERTICAL-STEP, a positive integer, specifies how much a Y axis label increments for each line. For example, a step of 5 means that each row is five units. Optionally, HORIZONTAL-STEP, a positive integer, specifies how much an X axis label increments for each column." (let* ((symbol-width (length graph-blank)) ;; `height' is both the largest number ;; and the number with the most digits. (height (apply 'max numbers-list)) (height-of-top-line (if (zerop (% height Y-axis-label-spacing)) height ;; else (* (1+ (/ height Y-axis-label-spacing)) Y-axis-label-spacing))) (vertical-step (or vertical-step 1)) (full-Y-label-width (length (concat (number-to-string (* height-of-top-line vertical-step)) Y-axis-tic)))) (print-Y-axis height-of-top-line full-Y-label-width vertical-step) (graph-body-print numbers-list height-of-top-line symbol-width) (print-X-axis numbers-list horizontal-step))) File: emacs-lisp-intro.info, Node: Final printed graph, Prev: Another Bug, Up: Print Whole Graph The Printed Graph ----------------- When made and installed, you can call the `print-graph' command like this: (print-graph fiftieth-list-for-graph 50 10) Here is the graph: 1000 - * ** ** ** ** 750 - *** *** *** *** **** 500 - ***** ****** ****** ****** ******* 250 - ******** ********* * *********** * ************* * 50 - ***************** * * | | | | | | | | 10 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 The largest group of functions contain 10 - 19 words and symbols each. 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File: emacs-lisp-intro.info, Node: Index, Next: About the Author, Prev: GNU Free Documentation License, Up: Top Index ***** * Menu: * % (remainder function): Compute a Remainder. * (debug) in code: debug-on-quit. * * (multiplication): defun. * * for read-only buffer: Read-only buffer. * *scratch* buffer: print-elements-of-list. * .emacs file: Emacs Initialization. * .emacs file, beginning of: Beginning a .emacs File. * / (division): Large buffer case. * <= (less than or equal): Inc Example parts. * > (greater than): if in more detail. * Accumulate, type of recursive pattern: Accumulate. * add-hook: Text and Auto-fill. * and <1>: fwd-para let. * and: kill-new function. * and, introduced: kill-new function. * Anonymous function: lambda. * append-to-buffer: append-to-buffer. * apply: Columns of a graph. * apropos: Columns of a graph. * Argument as local variable: Dec Example altogether. * argument defined: Arguments. * argument list defined: defun. * Argument, wrong type of: Wrong Type of Argument. * Arguments: Arguments. * Arguments' data types: Data types. * Arguments, variable number of: Variable Number of Arguments. * Asterisk for read-only buffer: Read-only buffer. * Auto Fill mode turned on: Text and Auto-fill. * autoload: Autoload. * Automatic mode selection: Text and Auto-fill. * Axis, print horizontal: print-X-axis. * Axis, print vertical: print-Y-axis. * beginning-of-buffer: beginning-of-buffer. * bind defined: set & setq. * body defined: defun. * Body of graph: Readying a Graph. * Buffer size: Buffer Size & Locations. * Buffer, history of word: Buffer Names. * buffer-file-name: Buffer Names. * buffer-menu, bound to key: Keybindings. * buffer-name: Buffer Names. * Bug, most insidious type: Another Bug. * Building robots: Building Robots. * Building Tags in the Emacs sources: etags. * Byte compiling: Byte Compiling. * C language primitives: Primitive Functions. * C, a digression into: Digression into C. * call defined: Switching Buffers. * cancel-debug-on-entry: debug-on-entry. * car, introduced: car cdr & cons. * cdr, introduced: car cdr & cons. * Changing a function definition: Change a defun. * Chest of Drawers, metaphor for a symbol: Symbols as Chest. * Clipping text: Cutting & Storing Text. * Code installation: Permanent Installation. * command defined: How to Evaluate. * Comments in Lisp code: Change a defun. * Common Lisp: Lisp History. * compare-windows: Keybindings. * concat: Data types. * cond: Recursion with cond. * condition-case: condition-case. * Conditional 'twixt two versions of Emacs: Simple Extension. * Conditional with if: if. * cons, example: kill-new function. * cons, introduced: cons. * copy-region-as-kill: copy-region-as-kill. * copy-to-buffer: copy-to-buffer. * Count words recursively: recursive-count-words. * count-words-in-defun: count-words-in-defun. * count-words-region: count-words-region. * Counting: Counting. * Counting words in a defun <1>: count-words-in-defun. * Counting words in a defun: Words in a defun. * current-buffer: Getting Buffers. * Customizing your .emacs file: Emacs Initialization. * Cutting and storing text: Cutting & Storing Text. * Data types: Data types. * debug: debug. * debug-on-entry: debug-on-entry. * debug-on-quit: debug-on-quit. * debugging: Debugging. * default-mode-line-format: Mode Line. * default.el init file: Site-wide Init. * defcustom: defcustom. * Deferment in recursion: No Deferment. * Defermentless solution: No deferment solution. * Definition installation: Install. * Definition writing: Writing Defuns. * Definition, how to change: Change a defun. * defun: defun. * defvar: defvar. * defvar for a user customizable variable: defvar and asterisk. * defvar with an asterisk: defvar and asterisk. * delete-and-extract-region <1>: Digression into C. * delete-and-extract-region: delete-and-extract-region. * Deleting text: Cutting & Storing Text. * describe-function: simplified-beginning-of-buffer. * describe-function, introduced: Finding More. * Digression into C: Digression into C. * directory-files: Files List. * Division: Large buffer case. * dolist: dolist. * dotimes: dotimes. * Drawers, Chest of, metaphor for a symbol: Symbols as Chest. * Duplicated words function: the-the. * edebug: edebug. * edit-options: defvar and asterisk. * Else: else. * Emacs version, choosing: Simple Extension. * empty list defined: Lisp Atoms. * empty string defined: Review. * eobp: fwd-para between paragraphs. * eq: Review. * eq (example of use): last-command & this-command. * equal: Review. * Erasing text: Cutting & Storing Text. * error: rotate-yk-ptr body. * Error for symbol without function: Void Function. * Error for symbol without value: Void Variable. * Error message generation: Making Errors. * etags: etags. * evaluate defined: Run a Program. * Evaluating inner lists: Evaluating Inner Lists. * Evaluation: Evaluation. * Evaluation practice: Practicing Evaluation. * Every, type of recursive pattern: Every. * Example variable, fill-column: fill-column Example. * expression defined: Lisp Atoms. * Falsehood and truth in Emacs Lisp: Truth & Falsehood. * FDL, GNU Free Documentation License: GNU Free Documentation License. * files-in-below-directory: Files List. * fill-column, an example variable: fill-column Example. * Find a File: Find a File. * Find function documentation: Finding More. * Find source of function: Finding More. * find-tags: Finding More. * Flowers in a field: Lisp Lists. * Focusing attention (narrowing): Narrowing & Widening. * form defined: Lisp Atoms. * Formatting convention: append save-excursion. * Formatting help: Typing Lists. * forward-paragraph: forward-paragraph. * forward-sentence: forward-sentence. * function defined: Making Errors. * function definition defined: defun. * Function definition installation: Install. * Function definition writing: Writing Defuns. * Function definition, how to change: Change a defun. * Functions, primitive: Primitive Functions. * Generate an error message: Making Errors. * Getting a buffer: Getting Buffers. * Global set key: Keybindings. * global-set-key: Keybindings. * global-unset-key: Keybindings. * Graph prototype: Readying a Graph. * Graph, printing all: Print Whole Graph. * graph-body-print: graph-body-print. * graph-body-print Final version.: The final version. * Handling the kill ring: Kill Ring. * Help typing lists: Typing Lists. * Horizontal axis printing: print-X-axis. * if: if. * if-part defined: if in more detail. * indent-tabs-mode: Indent Tabs Mode. * Indentation for formatting: append save-excursion. * Initialization file: Emacs Initialization. * Initializing a variable: defvar. * Inner list evaluation: Evaluating Inner Lists. * insert-buffer: insert-buffer. * insert-buffer-substring: append-to-buffer overview. * Insidious type of bug: Another Bug. * Install a Function Definition: Install. * Install code permanently: Permanent Installation. * interactive: Interactive. * interactive function defined: How to Evaluate. * Interactive functions: Interactive. * Interactive options: Interactive Options. * interactive, example use of: insert-buffer interactive. * Interpreter, Lisp, explained: Run a Program. * Interpreter, what it does: Lisp Interpreter. * Keep, type of recursive pattern: Keep. * Key setting globally: Keybindings. * Key unbinding: Keybindings. * Keymaps: Keymaps. * Keyword: Optional Arguments. * Kill ring handling: Kill Ring. * Kill ring overview: Kill Ring Overview. * kill-append: kill-append function. * kill-new: kill-new function. * kill-region: kill-region. * Killing text: Cutting & Storing Text. * lambda: lambda. * length: length. * lengths-list-file: lengths-list-file. * lengths-list-many-files: lengths-list-many-files. * let: let. * let expression sample: Sample let Expression. * let expression, parts of: Parts of let Expression. * let variables uninitialized: Uninitialized let Variables. * Library, as term for `file': Finding More. * line-to-top-of-window: Simple Extension. * Lisp Atoms: Lisp Atoms. * Lisp history: Lisp History. * Lisp interpreter, explained: Run a Program. * Lisp interpreter, what it does: Lisp Interpreter. * Lisp Lists: Lisp Lists. * Lisp macro: delete-and-extract-region. * list-buffers, rebound: Keybindings. * Lists in a computer: List Implementation. * load-library: Loading Files. * load-path: Loading Files. * Loading files: Loading Files. * local variable defined: Prevent confusion. * Local variables list, per-buffer,: Text and Auto-fill. * Location of point: Buffer Size & Locations. * looking-at: fwd-para between paragraphs. * Loops: while. * Loops and recursion: Loops & Recursion. * Maclisp: Lisp History. * Macro, lisp: delete-and-extract-region. * Mail aliases: Mail Aliases. * make tags: etags. * make-string: Y Axis Element. * mapcar: mapcar. * mark: save-excursion. * mark-whole-buffer: mark-whole-buffer. * match-beginning: fwd-para no fill prefix. * max: Columns of a graph. * message: message. * min: Columns of a graph. * Mode line format: Mode Line. * Mode selection, automatic: Text and Auto-fill. * Motion by sentence and paragraph: Regexp Search. * Narrowing: Narrowing & Widening. * narrowing defined: Buffer Size & Locations. * nil: Truth & Falsehood. * nil, history of word: Buffer Names. * No deferment solution: No deferment solution. * nreverse: Counting function definitions. * nth: nth. * nthcdr <1>: copy-region-as-kill. * nthcdr: nthcdr. * nthcdr, example: kill-new function. * number-to-string: Y Axis Element. * occur: Keybindings. * optional: Optional Arguments. * Optional arguments: Optional Arguments. * Options for interactive: Interactive Options. * or: Insert or. * other-buffer: Getting Buffers. * Paragraphs, movement by: Regexp Search. * Parts of a Recursive Definition: Recursive Definition Parts. * Parts of let expression: Parts of let Expression. * Passing information to functions: Arguments. * Pasting text: Yanking. * Patterns, searching for: Regexp Search. * Per-buffer, local variables list: Text and Auto-fill. * Permanent code installation: Permanent Installation. * point: save-excursion. * point defined: Buffer Size & Locations. * Point location: Buffer Size & Locations. * Point, mark, buffer preservation: save-excursion. * Practicing evaluation: Practicing Evaluation. * Preserving point, mark, and buffer: save-excursion. * Primitive functions: Primitive Functions. * Primitives written in C: Primitive Functions. * Print horizontal axis: print-X-axis. * Print vertical axis: print-Y-axis. * print-elements-of-list: print-elements-of-list. * print-elements-recursively: Recursion with list. * print-graph Final version.: The final version. * print-graph varlist: print-graph Varlist. * print-X-axis: X Axis Tic Marks. * print-X-axis-numbered-line: X Axis Tic Marks. * print-X-axis-tic-line: X Axis Tic Marks. * print-Y-axis: print-Y-axis Penultimate. * Printing the whole graph: Print Whole Graph. * prog1: fwd-para between paragraphs. * progn: progn. * Program, running one: Run a Program. * Prototype graph: Readying a Graph. * re-search-forward: re-search-forward. * Read-only buffer: Read-only buffer. * Readying a graph: Readying a Graph. * Rebinding keys: Keymaps. * Recursion: Recursion. * Recursion and loops: Loops & Recursion. * Recursion without Deferments: No Deferment. * Recursive Definition Parts: Recursive Definition Parts. * Recursive pattern: accumulate: Accumulate. * Recursive pattern: every: Every. * Recursive pattern: keep: Keep. * Recursive Patterns: Recursive Patterns. * recursive-count-words: recursive-count-words. * recursive-graph-body-print: recursive-graph-body-print. * recursive-lengths-list-many-files: Several files recursively. * Recursively counting words: recursive-count-words. * regexp-quote: fwd-para let. * Region, what it is: save-excursion. * Regular expression searches: Regexp Search. * Regular expressions for word counting: Counting Words. * Remainder function, %: Compute a Remainder. * Repetition (loops): Loops & Recursion. * Repetition for word counting: Counting Words. * Retrieving text: Yanking. * reverse: Counting function definitions. * Ring, making a list like a: Kill Ring. * Robots, building: Building Robots. * rotate-yank-pointer <1>: rotate-yank-pointer. * rotate-yank-pointer: Yanking. * Run a program: Run a Program. * Sample let expression: Sample let Expression. * save-excursion: save-excursion. * save-restriction: save-restriction. * search-forward: search-forward. * Searches, illustrating: Regexp Search. * sentence-end: sentence-end. * Sentences, movement by: Regexp Search. * set: Using set. * set-buffer: Switching Buffers. * setcar: setcar. * setcdr: setcdr. * setcdr, example: kill-new function. * setq: Using setq. * Setting a key globally: Keybindings. * Setting value of variable: set & setq. * side effect defined: Evaluation. * Simple extension in .emacs file: Simple Extension. * simplified-beginning-of-buffer: simplified-beginning-of-buffer. * site-init.el init file: Site-wide Init. * site-load.el init file: Site-wide Init. * Size of buffer: Buffer Size & Locations. * Solution without deferment: No deferment solution. * sort: Sorting. * Source level debugger: edebug. * Special form: Complications. * Special form of defun: defun. * Storing and cutting text: Cutting & Storing Text. * string defined: Lisp Atoms. * switch-to-buffer: Switching Buffers. * Switching to a buffer: Switching Buffers. * Symbol names: Names & Definitions. * Symbol without function error: Void Function. * Symbol without value error: Void Variable. * Symbolic expressions, introduced: Lisp Atoms. * Symbols as a Chest of Drawers: Symbols as Chest. * Syntax categories and tables: Syntax. * Tabs, preventing: Indent Tabs Mode. * TAGS file, create own: etags. * Tags in the Emacs sources: etags. * TAGS table, specifying: Finding More. * Text between double quotation marks: Lisp Atoms. * Text Mode turned on: Text and Auto-fill. * Text retrieval: Yanking. * the-the: the-the. * then-part defined: if in more detail. * top-of-ranges: Counting function definitions. * triangle-bugged: debug. * triangle-recursively: Recursive triangle function. * Truth and falsehood in Emacs Lisp: Truth & Falsehood. * Types of data: Data types. * Unbinding key: Keybindings. * Uninitialized let variables: Uninitialized let Variables. * Variable initialization: defvar. * Variable number of arguments: Variable Number of Arguments. * Variable, example of, fill-column: fill-column Example. * Variable, setting value: set & setq. * Variables: Variables. * varlist defined: Parts of let Expression. * Version of Emacs, choosing: Simple Extension. * Vertical axis printing: print-Y-axis. * what-line: what-line. * while: while. * Whitespace in lists: Whitespace in Lists. * Whole graph printing: Print Whole Graph. * Widening: Narrowing & Widening. * Widening, example of: what-line. * Word counting in a defun: Words in a defun. * Words and symbols in defun: Words and Symbols. * Words, counted recursively: recursive-count-words. * Words, duplicated: the-the. * Writing a function definition: Writing Defuns. * Wrong type of argument: Wrong Type of Argument. * X axis printing: print-X-axis. * X-axis-element: X Axis Tic Marks. * Y axis printing: print-Y-axis. * Y-axis-column: Y-axis-column. * Y-axis-column Final version.: The final version. * Y-axis-label-spacing: Compute a Remainder. * Y-axis-tic: Y Axis Element. * yank <1>: yank. * yank: Yanking. * yank-pop: yank-pop. * zap-to-char: zap-to-char. * zerop: rotate-yk-ptr body. File: emacs-lisp-intro.info, Node: About the Author, Prev: Index, Up: Top About the Author **************** Robert J. Chassell has worked with GNU Emacs since 1985. He writes and edits, teaches Emacs and Emacs Lisp, and speaks throughout the world on software freedom. Chassell was a founding Director and Treasurer of the Free Software Foundation, Inc. He is co-author of the `Texinfo' manual, and has edited more than a dozen other books. He graduated from Cambridge University, in England. He has an abiding interest in social and economic history and flies his own airplane.